Glass, ceramic, polymeric and composite scaffolds with multi‐scale porosity for bone tissue engineering

Porosity affects performance of scaffolds for bone tissue engineering both in vitro and vivo. Macropores (i.e., pores with a diameter >100 μm) are essential cellular infiltration; micropores 1-10 promote cell adhesion facilitate nutrient absorption. Scaffolds containing macropores exploit the advantages pore sizes have excellent osteogenic properties. Nanopores 1-50 nm) can be included as well, to improve cell-material interactions by further enhancing surface area scaffold. This article reviews fabrication techniques properties multi-scale porosity, focusing on glass, ceramic, polymeric composite scaffolds. After introducing structure how it inspired engineering, we introduce nomenclature. Then, discuss used induce nature created, effects scaffold porosity mechanical biological activity We conclude providing an outlook this field, including advancements that made possible computational modeling artificial intelligence. is protected copyright. All rights reserved.